Ultrasonic
debridement as a treatment for tendinopathy and desmitis is a relatively new
approach in orthopedic surgery. Previously only used in limited cases, this
procedure shows promise for treating ligament-bone and tendon-bone interface
injuries. We present a case study of a 2-year-old thoroughbred male horse,
unable to train due to recalcitrant symptoms after extensive conservative
management of suspensory branch desmitis (SBD). He was then treated with
ultrasonic debridement and concurrent manubrial stem cell autograft injection,
to treat the ultrasound visualized lesion. Post-surgically the patient
recovered quickly, began training within 6 weeks and went onto win several
races. Repeat ultrasound imaging reveals a complete restoration of the internal
fiber architecture of the ligament. With a 3 year follow-up, there has been
consistent training and race performance with no re-injury. This study is the
first to document the successful outcome of ultrasonic debridement with
concurrent stem cell injection in the treatment of equine desmitis.
Read more about this article: https://lupinepublishers.com/dairy-veterinary-science-journal/fulltext/ultrasonic-debridement-with-stem-cell-therapy-of-suspensory-branch-desmitis-in-an-equine-patient.ID.000135.php
In
acutely facing the problem of remote consequences of influence on an organism
of chemical substances, impact on reproductive function is important. In recent
years, in farms and private farms specializing in the cultivation of cattle and
small cattle, as well as rabbits, there are violations of reproductive
function, manifested in infertility and spontaneous abortions, pre - and
postimplantation developmental delay, physiological and behavioral changes in
the offspring, malformations and transplacental effects, and often their
etiology remains unclear. Our long-term production and experimental studies
allow us to conclude that one of the leading factors in the development of
these violations is the unfavorable environmental situation in many regions of
Uzbekistan as a result of various anthropogenic influences, including: the
significant use of chemicals to protect plants and animals from pests and
diseases, as well as other toxic substances. Currently, the most widespread as
a means of protection of plants and animals from various pests have synthetic
pyrethroids (cypermethrin, esfenvalerate, karate) and organophosphorus
pesticides (basudin, aktellik, etapas, location) [1-3].
The
use of these drugs helps to increase the yield of food and industrial crops,
reduce production costs, protects productive animals from ecto - and
endoparasites – carriers of various infections and invasions. However, their
irrational use often causes environmental pollution (soil, water sources, feed)
and causes poisoning, other negative consequences and, in particular,
violations of the reproductive function of animals. Among other toxic
substances that adversely affect the reproductive function of animals, gossypol
cotton feed deserves some attention.
In recent years, in farm and private livestock farms in Uzbekistan there has been a decrease in the resistance of animals and, especially, young animals to various bacterial and viral infections. Often there is a decrease and a complete lack of protective action of known vaccines and serums, which causes serious economic damage to livestock. One of the leading factors of this pathology is the unfavorable ecological situation which has developed in many regions of the Republic owing to various anthropogenic influences, including: application of pesticides and other toxic xenobiotics and also emissions of industrial productions.
The popularity of the circular economy is due to the increasing amount of waste-produced in the agro-food processing industry; new solution of waste recycling with biotech innovation are available. In the EU 3.5 ton per capita of waste are annually produced, including more than 400kg per person per year of domestic waste. The projections suggest that this increase at worldwide level, will continue at least until 2030 and there is no real evidence of decoupling between waste and economic growth despite progresses in waste recycling. While all sectors are potentially eligible for funding under the Eco-innovation initiative, certain activities have been singled out as priority areas because of their considerable impact on the environment and their potential contribution to meeting the EU’s own environmental objective.
In acutely facing the problem of remote consequences of influence on an organism of chemical substances, impact on reproductive function is important. In recent years, in farms and private farms specializing in the cultivation of cattle and small cattle, as well as rabbits, there are violations of reproductive function, manifested in infertility and spontaneous abortions, pre - and postimplantation developmental delay, physiological and behavioral changes in the offspring, malformations and transplacental effects, and often their etiology remains unclear.
Greetings from Concepts of Dairy and Veterinary Sciences (CDVS)
We are deeply thankful for your confidence and loyalty towards ourConcepts of Dairy and Veterinary Sciences,and we extend to you our best wishes for a happy and healthy Thanksgiving Day!!
In recent years, in farm and private livestock farms in Uzbekistan
there has been a decrease in the resistance of animals and,
especially, young animals to various bacterial and viral infections.
Often there is a decrease and a complete lack of protective action
of known vaccines and serums, which causes serious economic
damage to livestock. One of the leading factors of this pathology
is the unfavorable ecological situation which has developed in
many regions of the Republic owing to various anthropogenic
influences, including: application of pesticides and other toxic
xenobiotics and also emissions of industrial productions. The use
of synthetic pyrethroids and organophosphorus compounds in
crop production and veterinary medicine helps to preserve crop
yields, reduce production costs and reliably protects farm animals
from various infections and invasions.
Lupine Publishers | Journal of Diary & Veterinary sciences
Mini Review
The popularity of the
circular economy is due to the increasing amount of waste-produced in the
agro-food processing industry; new solution of waste recycling with biotech
innovation are available. In the EU 3.5 ton per capita of waste are annually
produced, including more than 400kg per person per year of domestic waste. The
projections suggest that this increase at worldwide level, will continue at
least until 2030 and there is no real evidence of decoupling between waste and
economic growth despite progresses in waste recycling. While all sectors are
potentially eligible for funding under the Eco-innovation initiative, certain
activities have been singled out as priority areas because of their
considerable impact on the environment and their potential contribution to
meeting the EU’s own environmental objective. In the modern Agro-food system,
the proper treatment of organic effluents to avoid their discharge as sewage
water or sewage sludge, to prevent the pollution of the ground and water
resources (oceans, lakes, rivers) is becoming especially important. Water is
essential not only for direct uses, but also for ensuring the integrity of the
ecosystems and the goods and services they provide to humans. The case we have
considered is the whey, a by product of the cheese production, requiring urgent
solutions to improve water efficiency and water quality used in the cycle.
The Cheese Manufacturing and Whey Processing
Cheese whey (CW) is the
liquid part after milk has been curdled and strained in cheese production; it
is the main by-product of the cheese making [1] After coagulation casein curd
separates from the milk, under the action of chymosin or mineral/organic acid
producing; the remain is the whey, a watery and thin liquid solution.
Approximately from ten parts of milk, one part of cheese and nine parts of whey
are produced with appreciable quantity of water soluble components [2]. It is
estimated that the whey produced annually by the European dairy industry is
about 75 million tons. it is a by-product of cheese making process, in the past
it was discharged as waste into soil, rivers, lakes, causing pollution. When
poured into a waterway, or sewer, the whey can deplete the water oxygen levels,
causing serious environmental damage. The whey pollution is measured by the BOD
and COD indexes (1.18) many authors have reported the following results: BOD5
varies between 30 and 60 thousand ppm (35-45 kg/m3) while COD varies between 50
and 100 thousand ppm.(50-100Kg/m3 ). According to Siso, only 50% of the total quantity
of CW is treated and turned into non polluting products, then the whey
wastewater disposal of the whey is becoming a major environmental problem in
the world with the production of cheese whey is estimated over 108 tonnes per
year. The whey dispersion is now forbidden by recent legislation act. In Italy
in 2015, 1.2 million tons of cheese and 9.5 million tons of whey were produced;
in most of the northern regions the conversion ratio cheese/milk was around 1.1
to 10 due to the prevailing medium hard cheese while in the south the ratio
around 1.4 to 10 for the prevailing production of mozzarella cheeses. The hard
and semihard cheeses represent the 59% of Italian production, followed by fresh
and soft cheeses, with 41%. Four Italian regions located in the northern
regions: Lombardia, Emilia Romagna, Veneto and Piemonte produce almost seven
million ton of whey representing the 72% of the total amount. Grana Padano is
the most diffused hard cheeses accounting for 22% of total milk output. The
first step of whey processing is the separation of the retentate fraction
containing proteins from permeate fraction containing lactose; different
methods are now available as ultrafiltration, diafiltration, inverse osmosis
and nanofiltration. Our interest in Lactose is for its use in production of
biopolymer namely PHA group after fermentations. PHA (polyhydroxy-alkanoate) is
a collective name for a family of biodegradable intracellular bio-polymers made
of chemically similar building blocks. PHB (poly-3-hydroxybutyrate) is the most
widespread member of the PHA family produced by a wide range of prokaryotic
genera starting from renewable feedstocks. A particular characteristic of PHA
is its biocompatibility, making them suitable for medical applications. PHA
also has good barrier properties, of interest for food product packaging. For
these reasons, applications of PHA are found, for instance, in single-use
packaging films, bags, containers, paper coatings, agricultural foils,
biodegradable carriers for long-term dosage of compounds like drugs or
fertilizers, and medical applications like surgical pins, sutures, wound
dressings, bone and blood-vessel replacements. Currently, the industrial
production of PHA by fermentation, is still a guess in terms of yield,
extraction and economic sustainability as the production cost of plastics from
petrochemical product is still more competitive and preferred by industrial
companies compared to biopolymer production, however the two costs are
converging rapidly. The environmental problems associated with the accumulation
of traditional petrol derived plastics, due to the long-term degradation, makes
urgent to find convenient bioplastic processing. The PHAs are polymers of
carbon and reserve of energy accumulated in the cytoplasm of many bacterial
species under particular conditions of excess of carbon availability, while
some other factors are limiting (i.e. N, P, S, and other). These polymers can
be synthesized in different types of PHA that microorganisms accumulate as
insoluble inclusion in their bodies. The production of PHA from cost-effective
substrates, such as agro-industry residues and specifically the whey is the
interest of many researchers, interested in the dairy chain optimization and
sustainability. The whey is a by-product of the cheese production chain; in
volume represents the 80-90% of the milk converted into cheese. Sweet skimmed
whey is subjected to a concentration step, removing 80% of its water content. A
convenient solution is to extract proteins from retentate fraction and sell
into separate market outlets. The permeate fraction rich in lactose
(45gr/liter) is a carbon source for different metabolic pathways. We
concentrate in the lactose fermentation to produce PHA; a number of studies
identified many microbial groups able to synthesize these polymers, the most
important are the Rastonia group, the Escherichia coli, the Capriovidus
Necator. These bacterial species are the most used for industrial application
since they associate high productivity and reduced times of PHA accumulation.
The PHA accumulation speed is very variable: specific rate 0.15 g/g*h
equivalent to 15% yield per hour; 16.8 g/L biomass containing 73% PHA were
obtained Koller [3].
Biodegradability
Majority of the strains
that are able to degrade PHA belong to different taxa such as Gram-positive and
Gram-negative bacteria, Streptomyces and fungi. It has been reported that 39
bacterial strains of the classes Firmicutes and Proteobacteria can degrade PHA,
PCL, and PBS, but not PLA. The population of aliphatic polymerdegrading
microorganisms in different ecosystems was found to be in the following order:
PHA > PCL > PBS > PLA. Microorganisms secrete enzymes that break down
the polymer (PHA depolymerize) into its molecular building blocks, called
hydroxyacids, which are utilized as a carbon source for growth. While
degradation by mesophilic temperatures, microorganisms which are capable of
degrading various kinds of polyesters at high temperatures are of interest. A
thermos-tolerant Aspergillus sp. was able to degrade 90% of PHA film after five
days cultivation at 50 °C. In the 1980s, Imperial Chemical Industries developed
poly (3-hydroxybutyrateco3- hydroxyvalerate) obtained via fermentation that was
named ‘Biopol’. It was sold under the name ‘Biopol’ and distributed in the U.S.
by Monsanto and later Metabolix.
Researchers in industry
processing are working on methods with which transgenic crops will be developed
that express PHA synthesis routes from bacteria to produce PHA as energy
storage in their tissue. Commercial ventures scaling up PHA production using
fermentation processes include Telles, USA; Biomer Biotechnology Co., Germany;
PHA Industrial, Brazil; Mitsubishi Gas Chemical, Japan; Kaneka, Japan;
Biomatera, Italy; Jiangsu Nantian Group, China; Tianan Biologic Material,
China; and Lianyi Biotech, China. PHAs is a very versatile precursor of
bio-plastic materials that raise the attention of different industrial
branches. As the best-known and most simple application, these biopolymers are
of interest for packaging purposes, especially in such areas where compostable
packaging is wanted, e.g. in the food producing industry. Especially in the
field of packaging of easily spoiling food, the high oxygen barrier of PHA
films is very beneficial. In addition, bottles for shampoos (Wella, Germany)
made of PHAs were commercially available in the past. PHAs can be used for
paper coating, production of daily commodity items like razors, diapers,
hygiene products, or cups and dishes (Metabolix, USA; BASF, Germany). For these
applications, PHAs can be processed by techniques of injection moulding or film
blowing using the same equipment as known from the well-established processing
of petrochemical plastics. In the medical field, PHAs were already investigated
as bone implant materials, for tissue engineering, for in-vivo application as
implants, surgical pins, screws, meshes and sutures, and as carrier matrices
for controlled drug release. Also the production of highly sophisticated
surgical articles such as artificial blood vessels and vein valves, spinal
fusion cages, bone marrow scaffolds, and meniscus regeneration devices.
Especially the possibility to change the composition of PHA allows the
manufacture of materials with tailor-made mechanical properties and a fine-tuned
degradation rate under in-vivo conditions.
Economic Caveat
Three main problems have
to be afforded to make the bioplastic production feasible:
i. cost of feedstock
ii. cost of downstream
process
iii. Industrial cost and
optimal scale. The feedstock costs are limited by the need to recycle a great
amount of whey in intensive cheese production.
By the way marketing
opportunities for whey proteins and lactose are growing and compete with PHA
production. The 2nd problem is the optimization of the downstream processing
for PHA recovery and refining after cell harvest. As intracellular products,
PHAs have to be separated from the surrounding non-PHA cell mass, mainly
consisting of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids and special polysaccharides.
Here, high input with often highly polluting solvents and enormous energy
demand still are the caveat in PHA recovery, compromising the demanding claims
of these bio-plastics to be ecologically sound materials. The 3rd problem
implies to afford the increasing productivity by designing the optimal
engineering plant for the final break-through of these biopolymers on the
market. A continuous biotechnological production process is well known as an
interesting solution for achieving high productivity, lower costs and constant
product quality. Some authors reported high productivities of 1.85g/L h for PHB
and a constant and satisfying product quality using Cupriavidus necator strain.
To optimize the entire
PHA chain, we suggest the following steps:
a) Optimize the
collection whey costs from a basin area of enough size to cover the costs and
minimize the environmental cost of transport [4].
b) stabilize the whey
quality and improve the efficiency of the whey processing through advanced
membrane methods of ultrafiltration, nanofiltration, inverse osmosis.
c) Find new bacterial
strain to convert directly and more efficiently the lactose into PHA, avoiding
the feast-famine two step fermentation.
d) optimize the scale of
the chain. Some industries achieved the break point of biopolymer cost
production with traditional plastic derived from petroleum (around 1.5 /Kg)
with scale production of 40 thousand ton per year [5-7].
This year is especially
significant to show appreciation, gratitude, and love to your loved ones during
those uncertain times. Your supportive and encouraging words towards our
journal this year have been of great significance to me. You were instrumental
in building my confidence. Happy Thanksgiving to all! from our Diary & Veterinary Sciences (CDVS )
Lupine Publishers | Journal of Diary & Veterinary sciences
Opinion
Nowadays water pollution is the burning issue all over the world. Aquatic ecosystems are frequently contaminated with different toxicants through anthropogenic activities, and some of them such as metals may be naturally present and essential in low concentration but toxic and harmful in higher concentrations. Having in mind that not all chemical forms of pollutants are equally bioavailable, and some pollutants can be accumulated in living organisms to a greater extent than others, there is a need to study the levels of pollutants in the organisms to be able to predict the environmental risk. Thus, chemical analyses of the tissues of aquatic organisms are used as a routine approach in studies of aquatic pollution, providing a temporal integration of the levels of pollutants with biological relevance at higher concentrations than those present in water or sediment, and facilitating their quantification [1]. Fish are among the group of aquatic organisms which represent the largest and most diverse group of vertebrates. A number of characteristics make them excellent experimental models for toxicological research, especially for the contaminants which are likely to exert their impact on aquatic systems [2]. Due to feeding and living in the aquatic environments fish are particularly vulnerable and heavily exposed to pollution because they cannot escape from the detrimental effects of pollutants. Fish, in comparison with invertebrates, are more sensitive to many toxicants and are a convenient test subject for indication of ecosystem health. Heavy metals are produced from a variety of natural and anthropogenic sources. In aquatic environments, heavy metal pollution results from direct atmospheric deposition, geologic weathering or through the discharge of agricultural, municipal, residential or industrial waste products. Heavy metals are able to disturb the integrity of the physiological and biochemical mechanisms in fish that are not only an important ecosystem component, but also used as a food source. Previous studies have shown that marine and farmed fish and shellfish are significant contributors to consumer intake of some contaminants due to their presence in the aquatic environment and their accumulation in the flesh of fish and shellfish. The objective of this article is to describe the effects of different persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals on the fish used as bioindicator of environmental pollution. Fish have been found to be good indicators of water contamination in aquatic systems because they occupy different trophic levels; they are of different sizes and ages and in comparison with invertebrates, are also more sensitive to many toxicants [3]. Last but not least, fish are the final chain of aquatic food web and an important food source for human. Therefore, some toxicants in aquatic environments can be transferred through food chain into humans.
The fish gills are multifunctional organs involved in ion transport, gas exchange, acid–base regulation and waste excretion. Given that the gills accounts for well over 50% of the surface area of a fish it is not surprising that one of the major target organs for waterborne toxicants is the gill. The gills are regarded as the important site for direct uptake from the water, whereas the body surface is generally assumed to play a minor role in xenobiotics uptake of fish. Thus, in teleost fish the gills are most frequently utilized in bioaccumulation studies and the pathological damage produced allows the toxicity of the environment to be defined, making fish highly suitable for evaluating the health of aquatic systems [4]. Fish metabolism, acting principally through the gills can be seriously damaged since toxicant incorporation occurs mainly through this respiratory organ. Furthermore, the fish gills are very sensitive to physical and chemical alterations of the aquatic medium such as: temperature, acidification of the water supply due to acid rain, salts and heavy metals, and to any change in the composition of the environment which is an important indicator of waterborne toxicants. fish gills are the main route of penetration of toxicants into the fish organism, thus they are the first organs which come in contact with environmental pollutants and are also sensitive subjects for identifying the effects of water toxicants on fish organisms. The fish gills can accumulate bioavailable pollutants, and their measurement on gills can reflect the speciation of pollutants, and in particular metals in water, therefore, they are a useful tool for assessing bioavailability of elements in water [5].
Liver and Kidney
Once the toxicants cross the biological barriers and enter the bloodstream, they will reach and accumulate in the internal organs of fish. Numerous studies have quantified contaminants in fish organs to evaluate environmental quality, seeking causal relationships with fish health, and, based on these, the liver is likely to be the best choice, followed by the kidney and gills. The liver is reported to be the primary organ for bioaccumulation and thus, has been extensively studied in regards to the toxic effects of xenobiotics. The liver is also a target organ due to its large blood supply which causes noticeable toxicant exposure. In addition, liver is a detoxification organ and it is essential for both, the metabolism and the excretion of toxic substances in the body. The vertebrate kidney is the main organ involved in the maintenance of body fluid homeostasis [6]. The morphology and function of the kidney have been modified through evolution to fulfill different physiological requirement and the widest range of kidney types is found in fishes. The kidney, together with the gills and intestine, are responsible for excretion and the maintenance of the homeostasis of the body fluids and, besides producing urine, act as an excretory route for the metabolites of a variety of xenobiotics to which the fish may be exposed. many studies showed that different toxicants accumulate mainly in metabolic organs such as the liver and kidney which can lead to many histological alterations. Levels of heavy metals such as lead, copper, cadmium, and zinc in marine fish have been extensively documented. These metals tend to distribute differentially between the liver and kidney and other organs, most likely because of metalbinding proteins such as metallothionein’s in the metabolic organs [7].
Fish Meat
The fish meat is a very important, valuable and recommended food in the human nutrition due to low content of fat and high content of proteins and mineral substances as well as optimal ratio of unsaturated fatty acids with cardioprotective effect [8]. On the other hand, fish muscle may be the depositary for different contaminants, which occur in the water ecosystem. Such environmental pollutants are dioxins and PCBs, heavy metals, and organochlorine pesticides are a global threat to food safety, thus fish meat could lose these properties due to environmental contamination. Hydrobionts can bioaccumulate many of these contaminants potentially making seafood of concern for chronic exposure to humans. The metal concentrations in the water are positively correlated with the concentrations in fish tissues, but some research has founded that the metal concentrations in the sediments are the most important factor for their levels in the aquatic biota [9]. Consumption of fish contaminated with heavy metals have deleterious effects on human health which was widely acknowledged after a series of events in the period from 1953 to 1960 when several thousand people died in Japan as a result of poisoning caused by the consumption of mercury contaminated fish. Therefore, concern regarding the presence of heavy metals and other contaminants in seafood has arisen during the last decades.
The Moust Important Heavy Metals for Fish as a Water Pollutants
The contamination of heavy metals and metalloids in water and sediment, when occurring in higher concentrations, is a serious threat because of their toxicity, long persistence, and bioaccumulation and bio magnification in the food chain. Fishes are considered to be most significant bio monitors in aquatic systems for the estimation of metal pollution level, they offer several specific advantages in describing the natural characteristics of aquatic systems and in assessing changes to habitats. In addition, fish are located at the end of the aquatic food chain and may accumulate metals and pass them to human beings through food causing chronic or acute diseases. Studies from the field and laboratory works showed that accumulation of heavy metals in a tissue is mainly dependent on water concentrations of metals and exposure period; although some other environmental factors such as water temperature, oxygen concentration, pH, hardness, salinity, alkalinity and dissolved organic carbon may affect and play significant roles in metal’s accumulation and toxicity to fish [10]. Heavy metals are known to induce oxidative stress and carcinogenesis by mediating free reactive oxygen species. In general, metals can be categorized as biologically essential and non-essential. The nonessential metals such as Al, Cd, Hg, Sn and Pb have no proven biological function, and their toxicity rises with increasing concentrations. Essential metals such as Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Co, Mo and Fe on the other hand, have a known important bilogical roles in toxicity. The deficiency of an essential metal can therefore cause an adverse health effect, whereas its high concentration can also result in negative impacts which are equivalent to or worse than those caused by non-essential metals [11]. The toxicity of metals to fish is significantly affected by the form in which they occur in water. The ionic forms of metals or simple inorganic compounds are more toxic than complex inorganic or organic compounds. The toxic action of metals is particularly pronounced in the early stages of fish development and adversely affects various metabolic processes in developing fish, resulting in developmental retardation, morphological and functional deformities, or death of the most sensitive individuals [10]. Heavy metals produce toxic effects at high concentrations, and thus could be considered as risk factors for several diseases [11]. Heavy metals are able to disturb the integrity of the physiological and biochemical mechanisms in fish that are not only an important ecosystem component, but also used as a food source [8]. Previous studies have shown that marine and farmed fish and shellfish are significant contributors to consumer intake of some contaminants due to their presence in the aquatic environment and their accumulation in the flesh of fish and shellfish.
Biomarkers can offer additional biologically and ecologically relevant information – a valuable tool for the establishment of guidelines for effective environmental management. So, it can be stated that fish biomarkers are necessary for monitoring environmentally induced alterations to assess the impact of xenobiotic compounds such as heavy metals on fish. Also, it is recommended that treatment of all kinds of wastewaters, sewage and agricultural wastes must be conducted before discharge into the aquatic systems. Also, enforcement of all articles of laws and legislations regarding the protection of aquatic environments must be taken into considerations.
Mycotoxins are biologically active, toxic metabolites produced by toxigenic fungi mainly belonging to Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium species, which invade crops in the field and may grow on feedstuffs during storage under favourable conditions of temperature and humidity [1]. FAO estimated that about 25% of food and feedstuffs are contaminated with mycotoxins and strong efforts have been made to decontaminate them by the use of physical and chemical adsorbents but the success made so far is limited [2]. Like other environmental pollutants, mycotoxins also adversely affect the health and productivity in animals and esecially in poultry [3,4]. The economy of poultry industry is heavily affected due to wide mycotoxin exposure or contamination of various agricultural commodities. The economic losses are primarily due to the decreased growth rate, feed conversion efficacy, carcass yield, carcass quality and increased susceptibility to other diseases caused due to their immunosuppressive effects among the affected poultry. A mycotoxicosis is a disease caused by a natural toxin produced by a fungus. In poultry, this usually results when toxin producing fungi grow in grain and feed. Hundreds of mycotoxins have been identified, and many are pathogenic. Mycotoxins may have additive or synergistic effects with other natural toxins, infectious agents, and nutritional deficiencies. Many are chemically stable and maintain toxicity over time. Out of more than 350 mycotoxins identified in nature, aflatoxins, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, vomitoxin, zearalenone, ochratoxins, ergot alkaloids, oosporein, cyclopiazonic acid, and tricothecenes are the most common and important in poultry [5].
Mycotoxicosis and Their Effect in Poultry
Aflatoxicosis: The aflatoxins are toxic and carcinogenic metabolites such as Aspergillus flavus. Aflatoxicosis in poultry primarily affects the liver but can involve immunologic, digestive, and hematopoietic functions. Aflatoxin can adversely affect weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, pigmentation, carcass yield, egg production, male and female fertility, and large hatchability problems. Some effects are directly attributable to toxins, whereas others are indirect, such as reduced feed intake. Susceptibility to aflatoxins varies, but in general, ducklings, turkeys, and pheasants are susceptible, while chickens and Japanese quail are relatively resistant. Clinical signs vary from general unthriftiness to high morbidity and mortality. At necropsy the lesions are found mainly in the liver, which can be due to necrosis and congestion or yellow due to lipid accumulation. Hemorrhages may occur in liver and other tissues. In chronic aflatoxicosis, the liver becomes yellow to gray and atrophied.
Fusariotoxicosis: The genus Fusarium produces many mycotoxins injurious to poultry. The trichothecene mycotoxins produce caustic and radiomimetic patterns of disease exemplified by T-2 toxin and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS). Deoxynivalenol (vomitoxin, DON) and zearalenone are common trichothecene mycotoxins that are relatively nontoxic for poultry but may cause disease in large concetratin in feed. Fusariotoxicosis in poultry caused by the trichothecenes results in feed refusal, caustic injury of the oral mucosa and areas of the skin in contact with the mold,acute digestive disease, and injury to the bone marrow and immune system [3]. Lesions include necrosis and ulceration of the oral mucosa, gastro intestinal mucosa, mottling of the liver, atrophy of the spleen and other lymphoid organs, and visceral hemorrhages. In laying hens, decreased egg production can be accompanied by depression, recumbency, feed refusal, and cyanosis evident in the comb and wattles [6]. Other Fusarium mycotoxins cause defective growth of long bones.
Ochratoxicosis: Ochratoxins are quite toxic to poultry. These nephrotoxins are produced chiefly by Penicillium viridicatum and Aspergillus ochraceus in grains and feed. Ochratoxicosis causes primarily renal disease but also affects the liver, immune system, and bone marrow. Severe intoxication causes reduced spontaneous activity, huddling, hypothermia, diarrhea, rapid weight loss, and death. Moderate intoxication impairs weight gain, feed conversion ratio, pigmentation, carcass yield, egg production, fertility, and hatchability [5, 6].
Ergotism: Toxic ergot alkaloids are produced by Claviceps spp, which are fungi that attack cereal grains. The mycotoxins form in the sclerotium, a visible, hard, dark mass of mycelium that displaces the grain tissue. Within the sclerotium are the ergot alkaloids, which affect the nervous system, causing convulsive and sensory neurologic disorders, the vascular system, causing vasoconstriction and gangrene of the extremities and the endocrine system, including neuroendocrine control of the anterior pituitary gland. In chicks, the toes become discolored due to vasoconstriction and ischemia. In older poultry, vasoconstriction affects the comb, wattles, face, and eyelids, which become atrophied and disfigured. Vesicles and ulcers develop on the shanks of the legs and on the tops and sides of the toes. In laying hens, feed consumption and egg production are reduced [6].
Mycotoxicosis Diagnosis in Poultry
Mycotoxicosis should be suspected when the history, signs, and lesions are suggestive of feed intoxication, and especially when moldy ingredients or feed are evident. Toxin exposure associated with consumption of a new batch of feed may result in subclinical or transient disease. Chronic or intermittent exposure can occur in regions where grain and feed ingredients are of poor quality or when feed storage is substandard or prolonged. Impaired production can be a clue to a mycotoxin problem, as can improvement because of correction of feed management deficiencies. Definitive diagnosis involves detection and quantitation of the specific toxins. This can be difficult because of the rapid and high volume use of feed and ingredients in poultry operations. Diagnostic laboratories differ in their respective capabilities to test for mycotoxins and should be contacted before sending samples. Feed and also poultry that are showing sings of sicknes or recently dead should be submitted for pathological examinatios. A necropsy and related diagnostic tests should accompany feed analysis if mycotoxicosis is suspected. Concurrent diseases can adversely affect production and should be considered. Sometimes, a mycotoxicosis is suspected but not confirmed by feed analysis. In these situations, a complete laboratory evaluation can exclude other significant diseases. Feed and ingredient samples should be properly collected and promptly submitted for analysis. Mycotoxin formation can be localized in a batch of feed or grain. Multiple samples taken from different sites increase the likelihood of confirming a mycotoxin formation zone. Samples should be collected at sites of ingredient storage, feed manufacture and transport, feed bins, and feeders [5, 6].
Prevention of Mycotoxicosis in Poultry
Prevention of mycotoxicoses should focus on using feed and ingredients free of mycotoxins and on management practices that prevent mold growth and mycotoxin formation during feed transport and storage. Regular inspection of feed storage and feeding systems can identify flow problems, which allow residual feed and enhance fungal activity and mycotoxin formation. Mycotoxins can form in decayed, crusted feed in feeders, feed mills, and storage bins, cleaning and correcting the problem can have immediate benefits. Temperature extremes cause moisture condensation and migration in bins and promote mycotoxin formation. Ventilation of poultry houses to avoid high relative humidity also decreases the moisture available for fungal growth and toxin formation in the feed. Antifungal agents added to feeds to prevent fungal growth have no effect on toxin already formed but may be cost effective in conjunction with other feed management practices [6]. Propionic acid are effective inhibitor, but the effectiveness may be reduced by the particle size of feed ingredients and the buffering effect of certain ingredients. Sorbent compounds such as hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate effectively bind and prevent absorption of aflatoxin. Esterified glucomannan, derived from the cell wall of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, is protective against aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxins. It reduces toxicity through the binding and reduction in bioavailability of fumonisins, zearalenone, and T-2 toxin. Various other fermentation products, algae and plant extracts, and microbial feed additives have demonstrated ability to bind or degrade mycotoxins and may be applicable and appropriate for the situation.
The paper is a part of the research work on the project III 46012 financed by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia.
